Council of Europe report
This seminal paper is one of the most influential academic and policy-oriented frameworks for understanding the spectrum of information disorder. It provides a rigorous taxonomy and analytical model that distinguishes between different types of problematic information and their strategic, social, and cognitive impacts.
Why This Work Is Foundational
Wardle and Derakhshan move beyond the vague and often politicized term “fake news” to introduce a precise, tripartite classification of information disorder (misinformation, disinformation, and malinformation). The paper establishes an interdisciplinary approach that integrates insights from communication studies, psychology, political science, and technology, offering a structured lens for both analysis and policymaking.
Core Concepts and Contributions
1. Tripartite Taxonomy of Information Disorder
The authors define three distinct categories:
- Misinformation – false or misleading information shared without harmful intent
- Disinformation – false or misleading information shared with deliberate intent to cause harm
- Malinformation – genuine information shared with intent to cause harm (e.g., leaks, doxxing, or out-of-context truths)
2. The Role of Agents, Messages, and Interpreters
The framework analyzes information disorder through three lenses: the agents producing or amplifying the content, the messages themselves, and the interpreters (audiences) who consume and act upon them.
3. The Seven Types of Mis- and Disinformation
The paper introduces a widely adopted classification of seven types (satire/parody, false connection, misleading content, false context, imposter content, manipulated content, and fabricated content), which remains a standard reference in academic and practitioner communities.
4. Implications for Research and Policy
The authors emphasize the need for interdisciplinary research and warn against overly simplistic solutions (e.g., blanket censorship or fact-checking alone), advocating instead for systemic, multi-stakeholder responses that address root causes in technology, psychology, and political incentives.
Analytical Value for This Knowledge Base
This paper supplies the foundational conceptual framework for analyzing narrative warfare, influence operations, and information campaigns throughout the repository. It is directly relevant to:
- Classification and assessment of information operations in 02 Concepts & Tactics
- Evaluation of sources and narratives in 07 Current Investigations
- Analysis of cognitive and perceptual effects in active crises (04 Current Crises)
- Methodological rigor in long-form analytical products (09 Repository)
Key Connections
- 02 Concepts & Tactics – Core framework for information and narrative warfare
- 07 Current Investigations – Analytical lens for ongoing information disorder leads
- 04 Current Crises – Application to real-world information campaigns
- 08 Guides & Manuals – Methodological guidance for identifying and countering information disorder
- 06 Authors & Thinkers – Profiles of Wardle and Derakhshan
Recommended Use
Analysts should treat this report as a primary reference when characterizing any form of information operation. The original 2017 Council of Europe publication is publicly available and should be the standard citation when discussing taxonomy or classification of problematic information.
Last updated: April 2026